College of Dryland Agriculture and Natural Resources Management

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    Effect of war on natural resources management and implication for alternative energy use in the Samre and Tsirae-Wemberta dstrict , Tigray, Ethiopia
    (Mekelle University, 2025-05-17) Alemu Girmay Wuyu
    The Tigray war (November 2020 to march 2022) profoundly disrupted natural resource management (NRM) practices and alternative energy use in Samre and Tsirae-Wemberta Weredas, Tigray, Ethiopia. This study investigated the war’s impact on NRM, governance bylaws, and the potential of alternative energy use, particularly solar cookers and lighting, to minimize resource damage and cope with energy resource shortage. Using a mixed-methods approach, data were collected from 251 households through surveys, focus group discussions, key informant interviews, and observations in Adgba (Samre) and Hayelom (Tsirae-Wemberta) kebeles. Findings reveal widespread damage to soil and water conservation structures (e.g., 80.9% reported stone bund destruction) and biological conservation, with firewood collection doubling (2.19 to 4.86 donkey loads annually) and grazing in ex-closure areas surging fourfold (39 to 155.69 days/year) during the war. NRM bylaws collapsed, with 65.5% (Samre) and 61.5% (Tsirae-Wemberta) of respondents noting severe disruption, leaving only 24% and 16% perceiving active bylaws post-war. Despite 98.4% familiarity with solar energy, reliance on traditional fuels persisted (wood: 3.39 to 3.98 donkey loads/month; charcoal: 1.31 to 1.75 during the war), driven by cost, access barriers, and disrupted supply chains. The study underscores the need for rehabilitate NRM infrastructure, restore governance, and promote solar technology through support and aid, training, and pilot programs to mitigate environmental degradation and support post-conflict recovery. These findings inform policies for sustainable resource management and energy transitions in war-affected regions.
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    Impact of War on Physical Soil and Water Conservation Structures, Vegetation Cover, and Community Livelihoods in Raya Azebo District, Tigray, Ethiopia
    (Mekelle University, 2024-11-21) Atakilti Eyasu
    Decades of human pressure on agricultural lands have led to significant environmental degradation, particularly in the Tigray region, where erosion has resulted in an annual loss of 1.5 billion tons of soil. Despite efforts in soil and water conservation (SWC) and landscape rehabilitated, the conflict in Tigray has exacerbated environmental damage, affecting forest cover and conservation structures. This study evaluates the impact of war on soil and water conservation (SWC) structures and vegetation cover in the Raya Azebo district, Southern Tigray, Ethiopia. Data were collected from two conflict-affected kebeles, Hawelti and Ebo, through household surveys, key informant interviews (KIIs), focus group discussions (FGDs), field observations, and satellite imagery. The study employed satellite data from Landsat 7, 8, and 9 to assess vegetation cover changes between 2000, 2020 and 2022 using the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI). 267 households were selected through random sampling method, four focus group discussion purposively selected and five key informant interviews were conducted, and the data were analyzed using SPSS version 20 and ArcGIS 10.8.1. The study shows that male is dominance in land management, and agriculture as the primary livelihood. War has exacerbated socio-economic vulnerabilities, limiting the adoption of sustainable practices. The findings underscore the urgent need for post-conflict rehabilitation to restore SWC structures, promote sustainable land management and improve agricultural productivity. The results show significant war-induced damage to SWC structures, with 46.9% of systems in Ebo and 53.2% in Hawelti partially or fully destroyed. This led to increased soil erosion, reduced agricultural productivity, and heightened food insecurity. Vegetation cover analysis from revealed improvements in Ebo exhibited improvement until 2020, but faced post-war setbacks, while Hawelti showed pre-war progress and post-war challenges. These results stress the need for customized management strategies. Ebo's NDVI values ranged from -0.3 to 0.33 in 2000, peaking at 0.50 in 2020, but dropping to 0.484 in 2022 due to wartime activities. Similarly, EVI rose from 0.387 in 2000 to 0.432 in 2020, declining slightly to 0.412 in 2022
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    Status of Beekeeping practices, Challenges and Opportunities among smallholder farmers around Desa’a Forest, Tigray, Ethiopia
    (Mekelle University, 2025-05-21) Hailemariam Hagos
    Desa’a forestland scape is one of the potential forest land coverage areas having high forest cover suitable for beekeeping. However, there was no systematic study being carried out to indicate status of beekeeping practices, challenges and opportunities associated with beekeeping in the study area. This study was therefore designed to assess status of beekeeping practices, opportunities, challenges and on improved beekeeping system having importance to address the challenges and to exploit the resources. The study was carried out in four purposively selected kebelles found in Desa’a forestland scape based on their potential in improved beekeeping. Accordingly, a total sample size of 200 beekeepers was selected using systematic random sampling technique. A semi-structured questionnaire, field observation and focal group discussion were employed to collect primary data. Descriptive statistics such as mean, frequency, and standard deviation was used to analyze the data. Improved beekeeping system in the study area was dominated by male (91.5%) with average experience in improved beekeeping system 8.37 years, 92 beekeepers having only modern hive and 102 beekeepers have both modern and traditional hive. The study reveals modern hive was more productive 16.25kg per hive per year than tradition 7.25kg per hive per year in the study area. Plant species influenced the test and color of honey. Hence, honey produced especially from Hypoestes forskaoli, Leucas abyssinica,Becium grniform is a special white and highly demanded honey in Desa’a forestland. Beekeepers indicating a large amount of honey were harvested in October and November. However, low amount of honey harvested in July and September of the year. High demand and price of honey, presences of multiple bee flora, wide area closers, presence of supporting NGOs and governmental institutions, having indigenous knowledge of beekeeping and socio economic value as good opportunities to improved beekeeping in the study area. However, the study area having constraints frequent drought, absconding bee, lack of beekeeping skill, application of agrochemical, high cost of beekeeping material and disease, pests and predators. Governmental organization, NGOs, Extension service providers, research institutions and higher education institution have to focus on strengthen beekeeping cooperatives, farmer groups , delivering practical hand on training beekeeping , developing regulations on agrochemical pesticides and herb sides usage ,develop honey marketing centers and quality checking technology.
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    Hygienic Practice and Microbial Quality of Raw Milk Along the Value Chain: the case of Agulae and Mekelle
    (Mekelle University, 2025-04-06) Teklehaimanot Fisseha
    Milk is one of the most nutrient-dense foods for humans; however, it also serves as a good medium for the growth of numerous microorganisms. Due to its highly perishable nature and poor handling practices across the value chain, total milk loss in Ethiopia exceeds 35%. This study aimed to assess general handling practices and the microbial quality of raw milk from smallholder producers to consumer’s spectrum. A total of 95 purposively selected respondents were interviewed to evaluate the hygienic milk-handling practices of producers. According to the data gathered, 63.2% of respondents used tap water to wash their hands before milking cows, while 31.6% used tap water with soap and the other remaining was not washed hands. Thirty milk samples collected from both study areas were subjected to microbiological analysis, including the determination of total bacterial count (TBC), Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) and yeast counts. Significant differences were observed in TBC, S. aureus and yeast counts between farm and retail levels (P < 0.05). The mean TBC values of raw milk at the farm, collection center and retail levels were 5.53 ± 0.66, 5.89±0.65 and 7.16 ± 0.67 log CFU/ml, respectively. The mean S. aureus counts were 3.66 ± 0.65, 4.33±0.32 and 4.39 ± 0.42 log CFU/ml, while the mean yeast counts were 3.25 ± 0.31, 4.4±0.65 and 4.43 ± 0.73 log CFU/ml, respectively. The results indicate poor microbial quality of milk in both study areas. This may be attributed to unhygienic milking conditions, unclean handling equipment, improper transportation methods, and the use of contaminated water for cleaning milk containers and utensils. Therefore, all stakeholders in the milk should be adequately informed about proper milk handling and hygienic practices to help ensure milk quality and safety.
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    Dairy Value Chain Analysis and its Challenges: The case of Raya-Alamata Woreda, Southern Zone, Tigray Regional State
    (Mekelle University, 2025-04-17) Alefu Abreha
    In Raya-Alamata, Tigray Ethiopia, dairy is recognized as a multifunctional livelihood activity. However, the sector is not well integrated with market systems and other value chain functions, leaving the associated challenges and opportunities unclear. This study aims to examine the dairy value chain and its challenges in Raya-Alamata. Data were collected from 155 respondents, including producers, retailers, and consumers, using a household survey. The collected data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and a probit model. The results indicate that the dairy value chain faces several constraints, such as inadequate feed, which reduces milk production, and animal diseases that lower yields and negatively impact herd health. Limited access to credit and financial resources restricts farmers from investing in the sector, while inadequate veterinary services hinder effective disease management. Additionally, the absence of organized marketing channels and processing centers limits farmers' selling options and bargaining power, and low milk prices discourage expansion. The cost-benefit analysis of milk production reveals that producers incur an average cost of 32 birr per liter, selling it at 98.7 birr, resulting in a profit of 66.7 birr per liter. Retailers sell milk at 120 birr, earning 15.3 birr per liter after incurring monthly marketing costs of 429,272.2 birr. Producers add significant value at 67.5%, while retailers contribute 12.5%. This analysis underscores the profitability of milk production and the importance of understanding cost dynamics within the dairy value chain. Moreover, the probit model identifies several key factors influencing milk market supply. The age of the household head positively affects milk supply, as older producers tend to have more experience and better networks. Conversely, larger land sizes may decrease milk supply, likely because farmers diversify into other crops and livestock instead of focusing solely on milk production. Additionally, as consumer demand increases, producers are likely to boost their milk supply in response. Finally, improved access to market information enables producers to make informed decisions, leading to increased milk supply as they respond effectively to market trends.
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    The Role of Traditional Flood-based Farming on Household Income and Water Management in Raya Azebo Woreda District, Southern Tigray, Ethiopia
    (Mekelle University, 2025-02-17) Abeba Berwo Baraki
    Traditional flood-based farming is an important agricultural activity in Raya Azebo woreda, southern Tigray, Ethiopia. Many farming households at Tsigea and Genetie tabias, located in the downstream of Guguf catchment, rely on agriculture for their livelihood. The need, therefore, arises to assess flood farming and its water management aspects, its contribution to household income and livelihoods as well as the factors that influence it. Hence, this study investigates the role of traditional flood-based farming on household income and water management in Raya Azebo. The study objectives were to assess water use and management, household income and implications to livelihoods, and the socio-economic factors that influence flood-based farming. Data were collected from a survey of 362 households proportionately and randomly selected from Tsigea and Genetie tabias. Key informant interviews, focus group discussions, document analysis and direct observations were also used to provide additional data and information on conditions in the study area. The research work examines water management, yield, income, community participation, food consumption status of households and factors impacting flood-based farming practices. Descriptive statistics and content analysis of qualitative interviews were used for data analysis. The main results indicate that for 78.7% of flood farming households water scarcity was a challenge; sorghum yield by users was significantly higher than non-users (34.7 against 16.4 quintals per hectare, p < 0.01); 72.1% reported high community participation on O&M; water use was found to be 51.5% of the available water; users got significantly higher crop income compared to non-users (ETB 184,147 against ETB 90,719 per hectare for sorghum, p<0.01); food consumption was significantly higher for households practicing flood farming than non-users (37.1 against 23.7, p <0.01), suggesting improved food security. On influencing factors for flood-farming practices, cost effectiveness and easiness to manage are positive influencers while scarcity of flood water, over-flooding of water, erosion of top soil, and salinity negatively influenced sorghum yield. The study emphasizes the need for improved water management and infrastructure support to ensure sustainability of floodbased farming, underscoring its crucial role in improving income and livelihoods in the region.
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    Socio-Economic Factors Influencing Moringa Production, Consumption Patterns Among Smallholder Farmers, and Utilization in Abergele District, Central Tigray Zone, Ethiopia
    (Mekelle University, 2025-05-17) Selemon Teklie
    Moringa oleifera, a plant renowned for its nutritional and medicinal properties, holds significant potential for addressing food insecurity and improving livelihoods, particularly in developing regions. This study investigates the socioeconomic factors that influence Moringa production, household consumption patterns, and utilization purposes among smallholder farmers in the Abergele District of the Central Tigray Zone, Ethiopia. A multi-stage sampling technique was employed. Abergele Woreda was purposefully selected, followed by the selection of three Kebeles (Mearey, Lemlem, and Embarufael) from a total of 13 Kebeles in the Woreda, based on production levels and accessibility. A sample of 234 household heads (93 Moringa producers and 141 non-producers) was selected using stratified and simple random sampling. Data were collected through structured questionnaires from household surveys, semi structured interviews with agricultural experts and community leaders (KII), and focus group discussions (FGD) with farmers. The study employed multiple statistical tools such as binary logistic regression, chi-square tests, and ANOVA to validate quantitative findings. Results from the binary logistic regression indicated that the age of the household head, access to extension services, education level, and marital status positively and significantly influenced Moringa production. Conversely, engagement in non-farm activities and membership in savings and credit cooperatives had a negative and significant impact. Regarding consumption, 54.6% of respondents consumed Moringa leaves by adding them to beverages, 40.0% in cooked forms, and 5.4% raw. The primary perceived purpose of Moringa was medicinal (67.8%), followed by nutritional (26.7%), with limited awareness of its environmental protection (5.2%) and water purification (0.3%) benefits. The study concludes that Moringa production is influenced by a combination of demographic, socioeconomic, and institutional factors (age, education, marital status, and extension services). While consumption is higher among producers due to perceived medicinal benefits, a lack of awareness regarding its full nutritional and economic advantages among nonproducers hinders broader adoption. To promote Moringa, it is essential to integrate it into food security policies, invest in processing facilities, provide agronomic training, and enhance community awareness through targeted extension services.
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    Effects of war on rural household food security case of Hawzien District, Tigray Regional State, Ethiopia
    (Mekelle University, 2025-06-17) Gebremichael Gebretinsae
    Armed civil wars carry various direct and indirect costs that strongly affect households‘ living conditions at the time of the war and for many years thereafter. The war in Tigray affected many household livelihoods. However, to what extent the war affected the household food security was not yet studied. Hence, this research intended to assess the effect of war on household food security at household level in Tigray region. This study was employed simple random sampling to select Hawzien district. For this purpose, 219 sample household were selected form three Tabies of the district randomly. Therefore, data were collected using household survey, focus group discussion and key informant interview. Furthermore, the collected data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and OLS regression model. The effect of war on household food security was analyzed using OLS regression. Accordingly, the OLS regression model indicates that war severity index (CSI) reveals a strong negative effect food security, with a positive coefficient indicating that increased war intensity leads to significantly higher food insecurity levels. Conversely, food availability decreases with greater war severity, highlighting disruptions in supply chains, agricultural destruction, and community displacement. Despite some improvements in food access and dietary diversity, many households resort to detrimental coping strategies, including selling assets and consuming seed stock, jeopardizing future food security. Therefore, implement immediate food relief programs to address acute food shortages in the most affected households with collaborate of NGOs and international organizations to provide food aid and nutritional support.
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    Rhamnus prinoides-based Agroforestry for Climate-Smart Agriculture in Drylands of Tigray, Ethiopia
    (Mekelle University, 2025-02-13) Destaalem Gebremeskel
    Agriculture is the backbone of socioeconomic development in many developing countries, but climate variability and land degradation are threatening productivity and income. Adopting climate-smart agricultural practices has been increasingly suggested as a solution. Locally practiced tree-based farming systems, such as agroforestry, can offer a promising solution, helping farmers boost productivity, adapt to climate change, and sequester carbon. However, the role and potential of agroforestry practices depend on many socioeconomic and biophysical factors, suggesting for the need of context-specific study. Integrating R. prinoides trees/shrubs with crops is local or indigenous practice in Tigray, Ethiopia providing multiple benefits. Thus, this PhD study aimed at assessing the distribution and characteristics, socioeconomic benefits, and adaptation and mitigation roles of Rhamnus prinoides-based agroforestry practice in four consecutive chapters. Using Maxent model, the future distribution of R. prinoides agroforestry under climate change scenarios was predicted, showing that suitable areas may shrink. R. prinoides is successful in the highlands and midlands with moderate temperature, good soil, and partial sunlight. Field surveys of 191 households practicing R. prinoides agroforestry reveal that the system thrives in rain-fed areas and is particularly resilient due to its inverse phenology, which reduces competition with crops, and optimizes water use. R. prinoides-based agroforestry is not only more profitable than traditional wheat farming, yielding three times higher returns, but also creates additional employment and strengthens land use rights, with women playing a central role in harvesting and income management. The practice enhances farmers’ resilience by diversifying production and stabilizing income throughout the year. Beyond social and economic benefits, R. prinoides agroforestry contributes significantly to climate change mitigation, with carbon stocks up to three times higher than in annual crop mono-cropping systems. This research underscores the importance of context-specific agroforestry systems that align with both biophysical and socioeconomic factors. Scaling up R. prinoides agroforestry and similar practices can play a critical role in meeting global climate-smart agriculture goals, offering a sustainable path for smallholder farmers to thrive in the face of climate change. Incorporating tree-based farming into agricultural practices not only boosts productivity but also helps mitigate climate impacts, making it a key strategy for building resilient and sustainable agricultural systems worldwide.
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    The Extent of contribution by Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture on Employment creation and Income generation in Mekelle Hadnet Sub-city, Tigray region, Ethiopia
    (Mekelle University, 2025-06-12) Berhanu Meressa Berhe
    Urban and peri-urban agriculture (UPA) involves the production of food and non-food items within or near urban areas for household consumption or market sale. In developing countries, rapid urbanization and rural-urban migration intensify unemployment and income scarcity. This study explores the socio-economic characteristics, determining factors, and impacts of UPA on income generation and employment in Mekelle Hadnet sub-city, Tigray region, Ethiopia. Using a multistage sampling technique, data were collected from 305 urban and peri-urban farmers through survey questionnaires, focus group discussions and personal observation during the year 2024. Descriptive statistics and econometric models were employed for analysis. A multinomial logit model (MNL) identified key determinants of participation in UPA, while logit regression estimated propensity scores. A propensity score matching (PSM) model evaluated the impact of UPA on employment and income. Descriptive statistics showed significant differences between higher-participant and lower-participant households. The MNL model identified factors such as age, family size, farm distance, animal feed use, employment status, farm income, costs, and experience as significant in influencing participation. Logit regression further highlighted the significance of age, use of agricultural inputs, and livestock holdings. PSM results demonstrated that participation in UPA positively impacted farm income and employment at a 5% significance level. The average treatment effect on the treated (ATT) was an income increase of Birr 13,103 and one additional employed person compared to untreated groups. The findings suggest that UPA contributes significantly to reducing unemployment and increasing income in urban settings. Therefore, coordinated efforts by local administration, municipal authorities, researchers, and policymakers are essential to support and enhance UPA practices.